The Boomslang Snake Of Africa

On September 26, 1957, the herpetological world experienced a rude awakening when the eminent herpetologist, Karl P. Schmidt, died from a snake bite. The snake was a boomslang (Dispholidus typus), a species thought at the time to be harmless, even though it was a known rear-fanged species.



PAUL DONOVAN

Dispholidus typus is one of Africa's most venomous snakes.

Schmidt was a senior herpetologist at Chicago's Lincoln Park Zoo, and his knowledge of snakes was second to none. He was brought a bag containing a snake, and upon opening it and peering inside, he immediately identified it as a young boomslang. He removed the snake from the bag for closer examination, and it was during this examination that he sustained a bite to his thumb from a single fang. As rear-fanged snakes were not considered dangerous at the time, Schmidt had no cause for concern and went about his daily business. He made periodic notes regarding the effects of the snake's venom as they developed.



PAUL DONOVAN

The arboreal boomslang can frequently be found in isolated trees within open clearings.

The following day Schmidt returned to work, where he reported that he felt fine. By that afternoon, he was dead from respiratory arrest and cerebral hemorrhage. Schmidt's death changed our perception of the boomslang, and subsequent analysis of its venom found it to be as toxic, if not more toxic, than many front-fanged snakes. Today, the boomslang ranks as one of Africa's most venomous snakes.
My first introduction to D. typus came while working with the zoological collection at Chessington World of Adventures in Surrey, England. I visited a dealer to pick up snakes we had ordered, and he asked me if I could drop three boomslangs off at another customer's house on my way back. During the drive, I prayed that I wouldn't have an accident because the car was full of venomous snakes. In addition to the boomslangs, there were two king cobras, a green mamba, three rhino vipers and a couple of Gaboon vipers. At my destination, when we released the boomslangs into their cage, I was surprised by their placidity. I expected them to fly around the cage like mambas do when first released. The boomslangs throat-displayed for a while, then settled down. It was after that experience, sometime later, that I managed to buy a couple boomslangs for myself, and my affinity for this misunderstood snake truly began.

Lurking Fear

Since Schmidt's untimely death, the boomslang is on record as having caused the deaths of seven people. Seven in 54 years is not a high figure when compared to deaths caused by other venomous snakes. One reason boomslang-related deaths are few and far between is likely because, contrary to much speculation, the boomslang is a shy snake and bites only when threatened.

I live in Botswana, and I am married to a local girl. The fear locals have for this snake nearly outweighs all others. They believe that if you walk past a bush or beneath a tree harboring a boomslang, the snake will either bite you in the face or drop onto your head to bite you. If you park your car near a bush containing a boomslang, and if you leave any windows open, the snake will crawl inside.

I lecture about snakes at various educational and government facilities throughout Botswana, and even though there have been no reported deaths attributed to boomslangs in that country, it is extremely difficult to change the locals' deep-set beliefs surrounding this snake. They remain fearful even when I tell them that virtually all boomslang bites were inflicted on inexperienced snake handlers, and not locals as they went about their business. In fact, this is a snake that once it detects your presence, it will be long gone before you even knew it was there. Problems arise when people - particularly children - see a boomslang and try to kill it.

Having the good fortune to have been able to search for boomslangs in the wild, the one thing I have learned is that it is a shy, elusive snake that is extremely difficult to locate, let alone catch. It is a very mobile snake, always on the move, and very agile. I also rescue snakes from people's homes before they are battered to death with a shovel, and I've been called out to remove the odd boomslang from someone's yard. I have never found it to be an aggressive snake, and when approached it will move away to avoid confrontation. One minute you are looking at it square in the face, but if you blink, you've lost it. However, as soon as you show any inclination to capture it, it will put up an impressive warning display to get you to back off. It is a challenging snake to capture.

Boomslang Description

The boomslang is not a large snake; it averages between 3 and 5 feet, though in exceptional cases in some parts of its range, it may exceed 6 feet. It has a rather slender, laterally compressed body with large, heavily keeled, overlapping scales. It is arboreal and widely distributed over much of sub-Saharan Africa, where it occurs in a range of habitats from coastal thickets to dry savannah, and even semi-desert areas. It is not typically found in densely wooded areas, preferring instead more open areas. In fact, boomslangs can frequently be encountered in isolated trees within open clearings.

Depending on age, sex and locality, the boomslang exhibits a broad range of color forms. Adult dorsal coloration may be gray, green, black or yellow. Mottling is sometimes present, and occasionally, pinkish-red boomslangs are also seen. The underbelly is off-white, yellowish or pale brown with or without spots. Young individuals are usually gray or brown with dark and light spots of bluish hue, and a yellowish or pinkish underbelly with varying shades of brown spots.

Boomslangs are one of the few snake species where sexual dimorphism is evident. Females are almost always brown, whereas males exhibit more vibrant coloration. It is difficult to understand why this sexual dimorphism should occur, as it is not seen in other arboreal snakes, such as bush snakes (Philothamnus) or mambas (Dendroaspis), that frequent similar habitat across some of the boomslang's range.

The interstitial skin (the skin between the scales) of the neck is black and most apparent when the snake inflates the neck region during warning displays. Young green-phase boomslangs may often be mistaken by the layman for green mambas (although these do not occur in Botswana) or harmless bush snakes. The foremost identification feature distinguishing the boomslang from other arboreal snakes is the large, prominent eyes (which are iridescent green in young snakes), and a rather squat, somewhat chisel-shaped head.

The boomslang's eyes account for a great proportion of the head's overall dimensions. The pupils are neither circular nor catlike, as seen in other arboreal snakes. They more closely resemble a keyhole or dumb-bell shape with a yellow iris. The large eyes of the boomslang indicate superior vision, believed to be binocular, and they can spot their prey before it moves. The large eyes would also lead one to believe the snake to be a nocturnal species, but it is diurnal, being most active during the early afternoon.

Feeding and Threat Behaviors

To watch a boomslang stalk its prey is riveting. It feeds on tree-dwelling lizards, especially chameleons (in Botswana, this includes the flap-necked chameleon, Chamaeleo dilepis), as well as birds and small rodents. When the snake detects its quarry, it moves slowly toward it, stopping periodically, presumably if it thinks it's been spotted. During these brief pauses, the boomslang may sway gently to appear as though it were a branch wafting in the breeze. It moves slowly forward until it's within striking range of its prey.

Like mambas, boomslangs frequent trees where weaverbirds construct congregational nests, so that they may raid the nests and snatch their tenants. I am not sure if it is common among boomslangs - it is not mentioned in the literature - but I know of one specimen that would eat the eggs of the weaverbirds. I captured this particular snake, and it regurgitated two eggs as I removed it from a weaverbird nest.



PAUL DONOVAN

Boomslangs are proteroglyphous (rear-fanged or back-fanged) snakes.

Although essentially an arboreal snake, boomslangs will descend to the ground or even cross water and roads in their quest for prey, but they always return to the trees to consume it. Most of the individuals I have encountered seem to have a penchant for thorny bushes, which makes capture doubly difficult.

As mentioned, when provoked, a boomslang can exhibit a very convincing threat response. It inflates its neck and the forepart of the body, displaying the contrasting interstitial skin. This is a different type of display than that seen in cobras, as the neck is not inflated by compression of the ribs, but an expansion of the throat. At the same time, the tongue moves up and down in a slow, deliberate motion. If this warning is disregarded, the boomslang may administer a swift sideways-motion bite, after which the snake may move off, or it may retain its threat posture until the perceived threat has passed.



PAUL DONOVAN

The boomslang averages between 3 and 5 feet, but in exceptional cases in some parts of its range, it may exceed 6 feet.

Venom and Venom Delivery

Boomslangs are proteroglyphous (rear-fanged or back-fanged) snakes, which means that they have enlarged teeth at the rear of the jaws with which to transfer their venom into prey. Most rear-fanged snakes have relatively short fangs with a channel running down their outer edge through which the venom trickles. Therefore, they typically need to "chew" their venom into their prey while holding it in their mouths. Boomslangs differ in having significantly longer fangs, and they can open their mouths wide enough (to 170 degrees) to facilitate a bite to the arm or leg. The boomslang's bite is reminiscent of the stabbing motion delivered by front-fanged snakes, and it negates the need for chewing action.

Boomslang venom is hemotoxic with coagulopathic properties, causing hemorrhaging to the gums, nose and other orifices, as well as existing cuts. Even a glancing scratch will bleed profusely. It is a slow-acting venom, and more often than not, it may take several hours, perhaps even a day, before the effects of the venom begin to manifest themselves in a human. Visible signs of boomslang envenomation include blood being passed in the stool, urine, saliva or vomit. A bite victim's body may also develop bruising and take on a bluish tinge due to extensive internal bleeding that takes place. Death is attributed to progressive internal bleeding, and it can be a slow and lingering process, taking anywhere from three to five days. Interestingly, many bite victims report "seeing with a yellow tinge," which may be due to bleeding inside the eyes.

Because the venom takes such a long time to bring about any symptoms, people who are bitten by a boomslang may think no venom was injected, and go about their business unaware of what is happening to their bodies. Anyone who is bitten by a boomslang should get to a hospital immediately and be kept under observation for 48 hours. An antivenin is available from SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research), but due to difficulties in milking a boomslang and the limited amount of venom obtained during the procedure, supplies are not usually widely available. In most cases, boomslang antivenin must be ordered directly from SAIMR.

Breeding and Babies

During the breeding season, from July to early October in the boomslang's range, male boomslangs can become overly aggressive, resulting in sporadic sparring matches with other males. The resulting scuffling among the foliage, sometimes accompanied by the sudden squawking of birds as they flee the scene, are often the first sign that boomslang courtship is in the air. Sparring matches are how males assert their dominance over one another, and they culminate in the victor winning the right to mate with any of the prospective females in the vicinity. The loser moves off in search of other potential breeding grounds elsewhere.

Females are oviparous, and after a gestation period of approximately 60 days, they will lay between 10 and 25 creamy-white eggs in a damp location, such as the hollow of a tree, in a damp burrow or among heaps of decaying vegetation. Following an incubation period of 65 to 100 days, the beautifully marked hatchlings emerge. At about 30 centimeters in length, they are rather odd-looking; a hatchling boomslang's body is spindly, and the large, vivid green eyes account for much of the total head size. The eyes give a baby boomslang a cartoonlike appearance.

Young differ markedly from the adults in that they are more colorful, and they almost always have a prominent vertebral stripe. This stripe usually fades at the onset of their taking on adult coloration, though some individuals may retain it into adulthood. Generally, the adult coloration does not begin to show itself until the boomslang is about 2 to 4 feet in length, when the color differences between the sexes become evident. If they are left in peace, a juvenile boomslang will have a lengthy life span, probably lasting about 15 years.

It is with my work in Botswana that I hope to repel some of the beliefs people retain about this amazing snake, but it is a long, slow process to dispel the inherent fear many people direct toward the boomslang.  REPTILES

Paul Donovan has worked with reptiles in a professional capacity for 30 years, starting as a trainee herpetologist at a local zoo in England. He has a degree in zoology, specializing in herpetology. He currently resides in Botswana, where he has appeared in a documentary about African rock pythons and acted as a consultant on a reptile-related Hungarian television program filmed in Botswana. He has authored more than 300 articles on a range of reptile subjects.

BANDED KRAIT – VENOMOUS – DEADLY

These are yellow and black kraits here in Thailand. In some other part of the world (Borneo) they are black and white. There are also “Blue Kraits“ aka “Malayan Kraits” which are black and white. And the really incredible looking Red-headed Krait which looks nothing like either of them.

Bungarus Fasciatus (Banded Krait)

Thais say: (ngoo sam lee-um, or ngoo kan plong) This is a bit confused in Thailand where, in southern Thailand any viper is known as Ngoo sam lee-um. Lee-um means triangle, and so some people confuse triangle shaped heads of the vipers with triangle cross-section of the kraits.

Length: average 1.5 m up to 2 m (about 6.5 feet) In Thailand they don’t usually reach a full 2 meters.

Range: All over Thailand and most of Asia

Notes: I have yet to see a live banded krait in the wild, except a few dead on the roads – but I don’t go digging up ratholes or termite mounds. I may start if I don’t find one soon. I’ve been looking for three years to find a krait with yellow and black bands like these. At dinner last night I was looking around a small restaurant with many ponds, for snakes. I asked the owner’s son if they had seen any. He said, Ngoo Sam lee-um. That could be the one. I’ll get their permission for some late night herping and try to bag one. I’m sure they’ll appreciate it. This restaurant is located on a small hill close to sea-level in southern Thailand. There are many frogs at the ponds, and probably many snakes too.

Update 2015- I’ve been to that restaurant numerous times and not had a call from them about this krait. I am not sure they have been found in Krabi. I have never found road kill B. fasciatus here in Krabi. I have found a large 2 meter dead on the road banded krait in Surat Thani on the main highway leading to Krabi.

Habitat: This Thailand krait lives on the ground and in rat holes and termite mounds, under stumps or rocks and in other cool, damp places. Recently I saw photos of one in some limestone rocks here in Thailand. They prefer wide open areas near water. They have been found as high as 1,524 meters in Malaysia and about 2,300 meters in Thailand.

Active Time? The snake is mostly nocturnal and is quite active at night. Most bites occur at night, as the kraits move close to people sleeping – usually on the floor, and probably the person moves and the krait bites. More dangerous at night, during the day they are not biters. These kraits are common in the northeast Thailand provinces. Recently a six year old boy was bitten and could not be revived. The snake had come up into their home in Surin to escape some flooding.

Food: Other snakes almost exclusively – rat and cat (Boiga) snakes. In captivity I have seen them eat the following live snakes: Calloselasma rhodostoma, Chrysopelea ornata, and Gonyosoma oxycephalum. One noted herpetologist states that these kraits don’t like to eat water snakes. Will also eat rats, mice, frogs, lizards if snakes cannot be found.

Defensive Behavior: The banded krait is slow acting during the day, lethargic, and usually not interested in striking. However, it can protect itself quite well – it is a strong biter and has been recorded as killing a large type of cattle 60 minutes after a bite.

Banded Krait skull showing fangs, jaw, and other dentition. Skull located at Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute in Bangkok, Thailand.

Venom Toxicity: Very toxic. Deadly. This yellow/black banded krait from Thailand appears to have venom that is very toxic to humans. The typical LD-50 studies to assess the toxicity of venom in mice, rate this as a very toxic venom as well. These snakes rarely bite during the day, but if they do, they can transfer enough venom to kill you. I read about a person dying in 30 minutes, and another dying in 15 hours. A famous American herpetologist, Joe Slowinski, was killed by a baby krait (Bungarus multicinctus) in Burma while on a remote expedition. They can be quite deadly. The cause of death is that your muscles are paralyzed and your diaphragm can’t work any longer to pull oxygen into your lungs. Kraits are very deadly in this regard. However, if you are able to get to a hospital with a ventilator you will likely be OK. There is no specific antivenin for snake bites from this snake, but polyvalent venom is used – which can also treat bites from Naja kaouthia and Ophiophagus hannah.

Interesting to note… when fed on a live garter snake the krait venom acts instantly to cause death. Apparently krait venom is very efficient with snakes – the krait’s primary diet.

Handling: The banded and Malayan blue kraits are not known to bite during the daytime. However, at night time they bite rather easily, as evidenced by the numerous krait bites that occur at night to people usually laying down to sleep on the floor either outdoors or in their homes with the door open. I would never handhold kraits like the man is doing in the photo above. The krait venom is so toxic, it’s just not worth the risk – however small.

Update: I was contacted by a man who was bitten by this same type of krait during the day at an impromptu show at a bar in Bangkok during the daytime. It bit his arm. He was lucky to live, and had lingering effects for more than two years after the bite.

Antivenin:  Polyvalent. It is advised by experts to get antivenin in your blood stream for krait bites before you have symptoms because, once symptoms develop you may have lost nerve functioning that will likely not return.

Offspring: Mating in March-April and 4-14 eggs laid about 60 days afterward. The mother krait remains with the eggs for another 60 days before they hatch. Baby kraits are about 30cm long at birth, and have venom. I couldn’t find in the literature whether the mother left the eggs as they started hatching – so she didn’t eat them herself or not. The King Cobra does this instinctively because it also eats other snakes.

Banded Krait Scientific Classification

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Bungarus
Species: B. fasciatus

Binomial name
Bungarus fasciatus
Classified by Schneider in year 1801

Photo of Two Adult Banded Kraits:

The Desert Horned Viper

The Desert Horned Viper

(Cerastes cerastes)

by Jay Sharp



The Desert Horned Viper – with its anvil-shaped head, satanic horns and cat-like eyes – has struck a chord in the imagination of those who have lived within its desert ranges, from northern Africa into the Middle East. For example, the snake played a prominent, and sometimes mystical, role in the history of the Egyptians, who embalmed Desert Horned Viper bodies, according to the Greek historian Herodotus. (The snake’s mummies have been discovered at the ancient city of Thebes, on the banks of the Nile River.) The snake’s icon stands for the phonetic sound “f” or “fy” in Egyptian hieroglyphics. A Desert Horned Viper may have been the species that inflicted Cleopatra’s fatal wound when that legendary woman used a serpent to commit suicide in the year 31 B. C., despairing over the imminent Roman conquest of her beloved land (an act immortalized by Shakespeare in Anthony and Cleopatra).

Distinctive Features

The Desert Horned Viper ranks as the most abundant and distinctive venomous snake within its range:

Size and shape: Typically just under two feet in length, robust and cylindrically depressed body, narrow neck, thick midsection, tapering tail.Head: Broad, flat and round-snouted, with center-ridged (or keeled) scales; forward-set moderately large eyes with vertical pupils (much like those of the Southwestern rattlesnakes); distinctive supraorbital horns (which may not always be present in all populations or even individuals); hinged hollow fangs that snap into a biting position when the snake opens its mouth.Color and pattern: Yellowish, brownish, reddish to grayish colors, often matching the color of the surface of the soil; darker and more or less rectangular patches along the back.

The Bite, the Venom, the Consequences

The Desert Horned Viper can deliver a bite that – while not usually fatal – can have serious consequences. The venom, according to a report published in the Oxford Journal of Medicine,has more than 13 different toxins—a witch’s brew of poisons that may vary in mix by geographical location within the reptile’s range. It causes conditions such as massive local swelling, acute pain, excessive bleeding (or clotting, depending on the blend of toxins), nausea, abdominal pain, sweating, exhaustion, kidney failure and heart irregularities. (Reportedly, the snake took a toll on French Foreign Legionnaires when those troopers occupied Algeria.)

Writer Peter David Fraser claimed that the toxins could also inflict mental disorders, severe headaches, paralyzed facial muscles, imagined evil smells and other “peculiar sensations.”

Clinical study, said the Oxford Journal, “has demonstrated the ability of C. cerastes to cause complicated and potentially fatal envenoming…”

Range and Habitat

The snake’s range essentially spans the Sahara Desert, from Morocco and Mauritania on the western side of the African continent to Egypt and Sudan on the eastern side. It also occurs in the southern reaches of the Arabian Peninsula. It prefers drier areas with finer and looser sands and occasional rock outcrops, especially at higher elevations with less harsh desert temperatures.

Diet

The Desert Horned Viper – like all snakes, a meat eater – preys primarily on lizards but also on mammals and birds that inhabit its arid environment. It often lies in ambush, just beneath the sand with only its horns and eyes exposed, poised to explode from its cover and strike its victim with stunning swiftness.

Behavior and Life Cycle

Most active at night, the snake spends its days sequestered in the sand or in abandoned burrows or beneath rocky outcrops.

As it moves across the fine, loose sand of its habitat, the snake travels by “sidewinding,” or sliding sideways, much like the Sidewinder Rattlesnake of the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of the American Southwest. In its sidewinding journey, the snake "looks something like a rolling spring and faces at an angle to its actual direction of travel: it appears to be headed in one direction while it is actually going in another," according to The Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians. Its unconventional method of locomotion notwithstanding, the Desert Horned Viper “moves randomly over a large area” according to Snakes: A Natural History,edited by Roland Bauchot.

It buries itself by shimmying its body into the fine loose sand, which it uses not only as a cover for ambushing prey and protection from the midday sun but also as its setting for copulation.

After mating, in the spring of the year, the female lays roughly a dozen to two dozen eggs in abandoned rodent burrows or beneath rock ledges. (She may have stored the sperm in her body for several weeks before she lays her eggs, said Dustin S. Siegel and David M. Sever in the paper “Utero-Muscular Twisting and Sperm Storage in Viperids.”) Once she lays her eggs, they hatch after 50 to 80 days of incubation. The new hatchlings will average four to six inches in length. They become sexually mature in about two years. They may live for 10 to 15 years or more.

Life’s Hazards

Although its desert ranges rank among the world’s more harsh environments, the Desert Horned Viper has managed to sustain its numbers. As a species, it is not threatened. Among its enemies, however, are the large predatory birds and the Sand Cat (a small desert-adapted wild cat).

If threatened, the snake can produce a rasping warning sound, which it generates by rubbing together the obliquely-angled, saw-toothed scales along its flanks.

Close Relatives

According to the Oxford Journal of Medicine, C. cerastes has two close relatives. One, the horned and similar-sized C. gasperettii,occupies a range extending from southern Israel eastward across Iraq into eastern Iran. The other, the hornless and much smaller C. vipera, shares much of the same range occupied by C. cerastes.

Interesting Facts

The snake’s thorn-like horns comprise modified scales, said Chris Mattison, writing for The New Encyclopedia of Snakes.The horns have an uncertain biological function, although according to some naturalists, they may help protect the snake’s eyes in its sandy environment. The horns might also give the snake’s head an irregular silhouette, providing some measure of camouflage in the desert sand.If touched, the horns fold flush against the head, providing a streamlining that facilitates the snake’s passage through sand and burrows.The snake’s center-ridged, or keeled, scales trap early morning dew, providing at least a minimal source of fresh water, said Mark O’Shea in Venomous Snakes of the World.In some instances, the snake’s bite induces in its victim a sensation that the heart is being squeezed by a hand.The earliest known account of a treatment for the bite of the Desert Horned Viper, said the Oxford Journal of Medicine, dated from about 2200 years ago, when Egyptian physicians wrote that they believed that victims could usually be saved.This snake has a variety of other popular names, for instance: sahara horned viper, North African horned viper, African desert horned viper, horned desert viper, greater cerastes, asp, or simply, horned viper.

When, in Shakespeare’s immortal play, the clown delivered poisonous vipers to Cleopatra for her final act, he warned her, “…there is no goodness in the worm.” She held one to her breast and a second to her arm, allowing each of them to bite her. She died swiftly. At least in the play.

Death Adder

The appropriately named Death Adder is found in Australia and New Guinea. They actually hunt and kill other snakes, including some on this list, usually via ambush. Death Adders look quite similar to vipers, in that they have triangular shaped heads and short, squat bodies. They typically inject around 40-100mg of venom with an LD of 0.4mg-0.5mg/kg. An untreated Death Adder bite is one of the most dangerous in the world. The venom is a neurotoxin. A bite causes paralysis and can cause death within 6 hours, due to respiratory failure. Symptoms generally peak within 24-48 hours. Antivenin is very successful in treating a bite from a Death Adder, particularly due to the relatively slow progression of symptoms, but before its development, a Death Adder bite had a fatality rate of 50%. With the quickest strike in the world, a Death Adder can go from strike position to striking and back again within 0.13 of a second.

Hydrophis belcheri

Taxonomy and BiologyAdult Length: 0.80 mGeneral Shape
Medium in length, slender bodied snake. Slender and elongated neck and anterior body increasing to a thicker mid and posterior body. Tail compressed laterally. Can grow to a maximum of about 1.22 metres. Head is small to medium, elongate and indistinct from neck. Dorsal scales are smooth and imbricate. Ventral scales are scarcely wider than adjacent dorsal scales and undivided ( some posterior ventrals may be divided ). About 23 to 29 scale rows around the neck.Habitat
Marine.Prey
Feeds mainly on eels and fish.Back to topSpecies MapSmall (Approx 20k) versionBack to top VenomGeneral: Venom Neurotoxins
Postsynaptic neurotoxinsGeneral: Venom Myotoxins
Probably present, but not confirmed.General: Venom Procoagulants
Not presentGeneral: Venom Anticoagulants
Not presentGeneral: Venom Haemorrhagins
Not presentGeneral: Venom Nephrotoxins
Secondary nephrotoxicity onlyGeneral: Venom Cardiotoxins
Secondary cardiotoxicity onlyGeneral: Venom Necrotoxins
Not presentGeneral: Venom Other
Not present or not significantBack to top Clinical EffectsGeneral: Dangerousness
Clinical effects uncertain, but related to medically important species, therefore major envenoming cannot be excluded.General: Rate of Envenoming: UnknownGeneral: Untreated Lethality Rate: UnknownGeneral: Local Effects
None or minimalGeneral: Local Necrosis
Not likely to occurGeneral: General Systemic Effects
Variable non-specific effects which may include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, dizziness, collapse or convulsionsGeneral: Neurotoxic Paralysis
No clinical reports for this species, but related species cause flaccid paralysisGeneral: Myotoxicity
No case reports for this species, but related species can cause systemic myolysisGeneral: Coagulopathy & Haemorrhages
Unlikely to occurGeneral: Renal Damage
No case reports for this species, but related species can cause renal failure secondary to myolysis.General: Cardiotoxicity
No case reports for this species, but related species can cause hyperkalaemic cardiotoxicity secondary to myolysis.General: Other
Insufficient clinical reports to knowBack to top First AidDescription: First aid for bites by Elapid snakes which do not cause significant injury at the bite site (see Comments for partial listing), but which may have the potential to cause significant general (systemic) effects, such as paralysis, muscle damage, or bleeding.Details
1. After ensuring the patient and onlookers have moved out of range of further strikes by the snake, the bitten person should be reassured and persuaded to lie down and remain still. Many will be terrified, fearing sudden death and, in this mood, they may behave irrationally or even hysterically. The basis for reassurance is the fact that many venomous bites do not result in envenoming, the relatively slow progression to severe envenoming (hours following elapid bites, days following viper bites) and the effectiveness of modern medical treatment. 
2. The bite wound should not be tampered with in any way. Wiping it once with a damp cloth to remove surface venom is unlikely to do much harm (or good) but the wound must not be massaged. For Australian snakes only, do not wash or clean the wound in any way, as this may interfere with later venom detection once in a hospital.
3. All rings or other jewellery on the bitten limb, especially on fingers, should be removed, as they may act as tourniquets if oedema develops. 
4. If the bite is on a limb, a broad bandage (even torn strips of clothing or pantyhose) should be applied over the bitten area at moderate pressure (as for a sprain; not so tight circulation is impaired), then extended to cover as much of the bitten limb as possible, including fingers or toes, going over the top of clothing rather than risking excessive limb movement by removing clothing. The bitten limb should then be immobilised as effectively as possible using an extemporised splint or sling. 
5. If there is any impairment of vital functions, such as problems with respiration, airway, circulation, heart function, these must be supported as a priority. In particular, for bites causing flaccid paralysis, including respiratory paralysis, both airway and respiration may be impaired, requiring urgent and prolonged treatment, which may include the mouth to mask (mouth to mouth) technique of expired air transfer. Seek urgent medical attention.
6. Do not use Tourniquets, cut, suck or scarify the wound or apply chemicals or electric shock.
7. Avoid peroral intake, absolutely no alcohol. No sedatives outside hospital. If there will be considerable delay before reaching medical aid, measured in several hours to days, then give clear fluids by mouth to prevent dehydration.
8. If the offending snake has been killed it should be brought with the patient for identification (only relevant in areas where there are more than one naturally occurring venomous snake species), but be careful to avoid touching the head, as even a dead snake can envenom. No attempt should be made to pursue the snake into the undergrowth as this will risk further bites.
9. The snakebite victim should be transported as quickly and as passively as possible to the nearest place where they can be seen by a medically-trained person (health station, dispensary, clinic or hospital). The bitten limb must not be exercised as muscular contraction will promote systemic absorption of venom. If no motor vehicle or boat is available, the patient can be carried on a stretcher or hurdle, on the pillion or crossbar of a bicycle or on someone's back. 
10. Most traditional, and many of the more recently fashionable, first aid measures are useless and potentially dangerous. These include local cauterization, incision, excision, amputation, suction by mouth, vacuum pump or syringe, combined incision and suction ("venom-ex" apparatus), injection or instillation of compounds such as potassium permanganate, phenol (carbolic soap) and trypsin, application of electric shocks or ice (cryotherapy), use of traditional herbal, folk and other remedies including the ingestion of emetic plant products and parts of the snake, multiple incisions, tattooing and so on.Back to top TreatmentTreatment Summary
Sea snake bites vary from trivial to lethal envenoming, so urgently assess all cases, looking especially for paralysis and/or myolysis. These usually develop in first 6 hrs. They require good hydration/renal flow, respiratory support (for respiratory paralysis), IV antivenom (CSL Sea Snake AV).Key Diagnostic Features
Minimal local pain, development over several hours of flaccid paralysis and/or myolysisGeneral Approach to Management
All cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal. Rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom (if indicated & available) is mandatory. Admit all cases.Antivenom Therapy
Antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming. Multiple doses may be required.Back to topAntivenoms1. Antivenom Code: MAuCSL03Antivenom Name: Sea snake antivenomManufacturer: CSL LimitedPhone: ++61-3-9389-1911
Toll free: 1800 642 865Address: 45 Poplar Road
Parkville
Victoria 3052Country: Australia